How GBV Should be Reported in the Media

Here’s a piece in the IPS News Agency for journalists.

How Gender-Based Violence Should be Reported in the Media

“UNFPA has also worked with humanitarian partners to create media guidelines and a Syria-specific handbook for journalists.”

I hope these resources are helpful!

Media Misses

I’m baaaack

Thanks for hanging in there with me. I was pretty busy these past 3 months – I went back to work full-time, bought a condo, went on vacation, and now, am getting ready for the holidays. My posts will probably still be a bit erratic, but I wanted to get back into the swing of things.

And, I have to say, while I’ve been away, the posts  about horrific rapes (tied up, peed on…) have been getting some of the most hits – and I don’t think they’re looking at these posts from an analytic viewpoint if you know what I mean. How ironic to write about sexual violence and have the pervs show up. I hope they did some reading while they were here.

 

 

 

 

Criminalizing moms

This article makes an excellent point about black mothers – but, it also applies to any mother.  On other posts, I’ve written about mothers being held to higher standards than fathers, mothers being jailed for refusing to hand over custody to abusers, and mothers being treated unjustly by the family court system.

Jezebels, welfare queens–and now, criminally bad black moms

Nelson was chasing after him with her 2-year-old daughter in her arms when the family was hit by a driver with two prior drunk driving and hit-and-run convictions on his record. He was again drunk that night, and later served six months in jail for his crime.

For her loss, the Cobb County solicitor general charged Nelson, who didn’t even own a car, with vehicular manslaughter. When an all-white jury found her guilty in July, news of Nelson’s conviction and the possible three-year prison sentence she faced led to a national outcry and an online campaign for leniency. At her sentencing a judge gave her community service instead of jail time, and in a rare move, offered Nelson a new trial. Last week, Nelson accepted.

And –

“It’s a hard time to be a poor black mother,” Jones said. “Structurally, the support systems for them have been severely eroded and there are just more ways to punish people for being bad parents than there were in the past, because the criminal justice system is more punitive.”

In the last 20 years, women of color have become the fastest growing segment of the prison population, driven in large part by new classes of crimes that have been created or relabeled, said University of Hawaii criminologist Meda Chesney-Lind. Where 20 years ago crimes like the sale and possession of tiny amounts of drugs, or drug use during pregnancy, were not even considered crimes, today they are fueling a massive uptick in incarceration rates. The addition of mandatory minimum prison sentencing over the years eliminated judges’ discretion and contributed to these racially disparate increases.

And-

In January, Ohio mom Kelley Williams-Bolar was charged with falsifying records when she used her father’s home address to get her daughters into a better school in a wealthier neighboring school district. She served 10 days in jail, and even though the theft charges were dismissed after a similar national outcry, the felony on her record has threatened her career in special education.

In April, Norwalk, Connecticut officials prosecuted Tanya McDowell for doing something similar; she’s pleaded not guilty. “I just want to know: When does it become a crime to seek a better education for your child?” McDowell said at the time, the Norwalk Patch reported.

In 2009, South Carolina officials took Jerri Gray’s obese son Alexander Draper away from her and put him in foster care because, they argued, the teen’s health was in danger and he was no longer safe with his mother. Gray lost custody of her son, and then was charged with criminal neglect. Two years later, her charges are still pending, her attorney says, and Draper lives with his aunt. Last week, the latest in a series of studies showed how difficult it would be for a low-income family to buy groceries that meet the USDA’s standard for nutritious eating.

McDowell, Williams-Bolar, Nelson and Gray are all single parents, all black mothers struggling in tough circumstances to raise their families. Where poor black mothers are concerned, compassion’s in short supply, but there’s plenty of blame to hand over.

Want further proof? Here’s 2 cases just from today:

Shamika Koyce Dunn arrested for felony child neglect   (How many times do they put the father’s entire name in the headline?)

Authorities arrested Shamika Koyce Dunn, of Woodbridge. Her 3-year-old daughter was discovered walking in the street unattended.

Police returned the child to her home and, while investigating, Dunn returned home carrying half a bottle of wine and was in possession of marijuana, police said.

The child was in good condition. Police say young girl is now in the custody of another family member.

I’m sorry, but this behavior would be excused if it were a father (particularly if he was white). It would be considered a minor blip in his parenting skills. The child was, afterall, unharmed.

Here’s a case of a day-care provider – a very young woman (23) who’s trying to make a living taking care of children – not earning very much – and now charged with a felony – that will likely ruin her short-lived career. Again, the kids were unharmed.

Prince William day-care provider charged with neglect 

A Prince William County day-care provider was accused of child neglect after a 1-year-old and a 3-year-old in her care wandered out of her house and into the neighborhood, police said.

For a comparison to how dads are treated, look at this recent case where the boy was beat and shoved inside a stove – yes, a stove.

Son begs for leniency for dad who stuffed him in oven

A Staten Island man who brutally beat his then-9 year old son, stripping him naked, burning his hands and then throwing him into a kitchen oven, will serve just four months in jail on weekends for the attack.

And-

Police said Moss punched his son in the face and then pushed him into the oven,  threatening “I’m going to burn you alive!” The boy begged to be let out of the  oven, which wasn’t turned on, and then the father forced him, still naked, out  the front door.

When Moss’ wife got home from work, she took her son to the hospital, where he was treated for second and third degree burns.

And-

Judge Collini responded, “This court feels compelled to temper justice with understanding and compassion, for the victim.” He sentenced James Moss to four months of weekends in county jail, with five years of supervised probation. James Moss can’t be reunited with his family at this time but will continue supervised visits with his son.

Outside court, Moss’ 11 year old son was led away by his mother and a caseworker, wearing a dark baseball cap and
sunglasses.

When PIX 11 asked Moss’ defense attorney if the sentence was a slap on the wrist, he replied, “It’s absolutely not a slap on the wrist! The judge took into consideration the wishes of the victim.” As the judge pointed out, he–with his sentence–did not want to add to the trauma of a child who’s already been severely traumatized.

Raleigh dad charged after child wanders roadway 

Raleigh police say a 3-year-old girl is OK after she wandered out of her house and walked across four lanes of traffic while her father was home asleep.

Authorities say the girl was found several blocks from her home around 11 a.m. Wednesday.

Police charged the girl’s father, 27-year-old Aaron Harris Rush, with misdemeanor child abuse.

 

Today Show’s major media bias in psycho ex-wife case

The Today Show has showed major bias against battered mothers in the past – yesterday was no different – but, if possible, it was a bit worse than usual. Bonnie Russell posted her interview with Allison Morelli on this blog:

@Bonnie Russell…Allison Morelli…The follow up: What was the Today Show thinking?

Someone sent it to Allison and she contacted me. I subsequently learned in the five hours TODAY Show free-lance producers spent with Ms. Morelli, much which was very important didn’t air.  Turns out the Today Show piece was worse than most could have imagined.

Not mentioned

That the Psycho Ex-Wife did not solely slam Allison Morelli.  The site also featured posts that were highly critical of both boys. Criticism that will not be repeated here.  That was not featured in any part of the interview regarding a court system that is supposed to oversee the best interests of the children.

Read Russell’s interview with Morelli here.

The antidote to Casey Anthony

The antidote to the trial of one mother accused of killing her daughter? How about all the other child abuse/murder cases going on simultaneously that has no outrage, no vigilante justice, no new laws.

Violent selfish fathers, vs. violent, selfish mothers on trial

During the time that Florida mother Casey Anthony was in custody and on trial, any number of American fathers, stepfathers, and
live-in boyfriends killed their children.

Daily, the local and national media dutifully report awful examples of paternal cruelty and infanticidal violence.

Most recently, on June 30, 2011, a single Texas father, Carlos Rico, choked his four-year-old son, and then left him for dead;
miraculously the boy lived. This father faces attempted murder charges. One wonders whether he will become a media sensation. Heshould. His only motivation seems to have been that his son’s very devoted stepmother left him and changed her Facebook
status to “single.”

On June 13, 2011, a 37-year-old Maine father shot his wife and their two children
(ages 12 and 13) inside their home.
Angry and frustrated about an ongoing custody dispute, he resolved the matter by killing everyone, including himself.

On May 8, 2011, a Los Angeles father shot his girlfriend, their two five-year old twins, and then himself. Precious little ink has been spilled about this.

On April 19, 2011, an Arkansas father ran over his two children, ages 18 months and 4 years-old; he was arrested and was charged with two counts of capital murder.

Nobody knows his name. No petitions have been launched, no demonstrations held. For the record, his name is Robert Carter and he is 23 years-old.

In addition, during this approximately two month period, if we are to believe the existing studies, an untold number of fathers abused their wives and children both physically and sexually.

However, the American public did not launch any vocal campaigns against any of these violent and abusive fathers or against fathers in general….

Read more: http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2011/07/12/violent-selfish-fathers-vs-violent-selfish-mothers-on-trial/#ixzz1S8XIjq8j

 (But the Huffpost had an article complaining about the false allegations of domestic violence, child abuse, and child sexual abuse in custody battles – apparently oblivious to the child murders that make it into the newspaper weekly, sometimes daily.)
 Naples lawyer, father accused of zip tying up daughter gets custody of younger girl
http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2011/jul/08/attorney-Jon-Parrish-zip-tie-daughter-custody-case/

With two parents locked in a bitter back-and-forth, the family court has had to decide who can better care for a 12-year-old:

A father and local lawyer who has admitted to tying up another daughter, then-15, with zip ties and threatening her with a shock-producing device?

Or a mother who has been uncooperative in court proceedings and could be trying to turn her children against their father?

Lastmonth, Collier Circuit Judge Lauren Brodie sided with the father, Jon Parrish,agreeing with two impartial third-party experts. The mother, Julie Price, wasoffered supervised visits but declined.

And

Duringthose three months, Price became uncooperative, Brodie stated in a ruling.Price didn’t follow through with allowing visits between Parrish and thecouple’s youngest daughter, and she unilaterally canceled court-ordered appointments.

It left Brodie with a decision: Should the couple’s now- 12-year-old live with a father still facing abuse charges, or go against two impartial experts andaward temporary custody to the mother.

And
For deciding custody or a primary residence in such cases,  Florida law outlines 13 factors for a judge to consider. Among those pertinent
to this case: Which parent will encourage contact and a relationship between the child and another parent, evidence of domestic violence or child abuse, and the need to maintain continuity in a single household.
___
One year probation for father who shakes and throws baby,
waits 5 hours for medical care, and blames injuries on girlfriend
Father charged after Orange City infant shaken and thrown
http://www.news-journalonline.com/news/local/west-volusia/2011/07/13/father-charged-after-orange-city-infant-shaken-and-thrown.html
 Ten year old kills father (Hall – who had custody)
Hall won custody of the children in 2004. Neal filed for joint custody last year, saying Hall’s neo-Nazi ties made her “scared of what
will happen to my kids.”

http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/stepmom-pleads-not-guilty-to-endangerment-gun-charges-in-case-of-boy-shooting-supremacist-dad/2011/07/13/gIQAbrf7CI_story.html

 Finally, acknowledgement!
Father arrested after son’s stab death

“When children are this badly hurt, one of the parents is the perpetrator in 80-90 percent of the cases. The crime is committed in their apartment and the motive is rarely directed at the child. Instead, mental illness or custody cases can lie behind the violence,”
said Rying. “But the sort of case found in Umea is thankfully very uncommon. Weapons are rarely involved in cases with young children,” he added.

https://plusone.google.com/u/0/_/+1/button?hl=en-US&jsh=r%3Bgc%2F22326474-d7ea9837#url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icenews.is%2Findex.php%2F2011%2F07%2F14%2Ffather-arrested-after-sons-stab-death%2F&size=standard&count=true&id=I1_1310693287490&parent=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icenews.is&rpctoken=206918803&_methods=onPlusOne%2C_ready%2C_close%2C_open%2C_resizeMe

Read more: http://www.icenews.is/index.php/2011/07/14/father-arrested-after-sons-stab-death/#ixzz1S8KJWBwu

  Killer’s mom almost got custody –
Fort Pierce girl orphaned in murder-suicide living in Georgia
http://www.tcpalm.com/news/2011/jul/14/fort-pierce-girl-orphaned-in-murder-suicide-in/
 The evil feminists are to blame for everything (family court, laws, media….) – It’s probably better not to click on the link!

http://thelawarticles.com/media-ignores-fathers-family-court-suicide-to-coverup-governments-feminist-tyranny-against-fathers/

Media Ignores Father’s Family Court Suicide to
Coverup Government’s Feminist Tyranny against Fathers

Custody disputes tough on women (but media fails to tell story)

Women’s E-News has written about this topic in the past – it’s the mainstream media outlets that ignore it:

Custody disputes now tougher for battered moms

However, certain injustices (crimes, really) that I first began tracking in the late 1970s have now gotten much worse. For example, battered women are losing custody to their batterers in record numbers. Children are being successfully brainwashed by fathers, but many mothers are being falsely accused of brainwashing. Worse: Children with mandated reporters–physicians, nurses or teachers–who report to them that they have been sexually abused by their fathers are usually given to those very fathers. The mothers of these children are almost always viewed as having “coached” or “alienated” the children and, on this basis alone, are seen as “unfit” mothers.

It’s even tough in Taiwan:

Judges in custody cases urged to think of children’s needs 

…It found that serious problems can arise when women are fighting for custody of their children.

In court, judges prefer not to change the status quo in the family. If the father takes the child away from the mother before or after the parents separate, for example, the judge will usually grant custody to the father, for fear that the child will have difficulty adjusting to a new lifestyle, she said.

Should the mother ask for a retrial, the case is heard in the same court and very often the judges still award custody to the father, Chi said.

Last year, judges ruled 61 percent of child custody disputes in favor of the father, she said.

“The judges are supposed to make their decisions based on the best interests of the child, but what we are seeing is totally different,” Chi said.

This is what can happen to women in a custody dispute (even w/o previous violence in the relationship) – it’s not happening to men on the same scale – yet the media is picking up on men’s stories in divorce & custody. Some articles don’t mention who has custody or where the biological mother is when the child(ren) is in the care of the custodial Dad.

Friends mourn teens killed in Chula Vista suicide 

A family friend told 10News the former attorney and life coach was having financial problems and was at risk of losing his home and full custody of the boys. He and his wife, Maria, filed for divorce in 2007.

He had full custody of two boys ages 13 and 15 – and he killed them both and them committed suicide (the 3rd murder-suicide this month in this area).

Are men and women held to a different standard when disciplining a child?

You be the judge…

Judge admonishes Mom for spanking daughter

(Newser)                                                                 –                                                                A mother in Texas who got arrested after spanking her toddler received five years’ probation and a stern lecture from the judge this week, reports KZTV. “You don’t spank children today,” District Court Judge Jose Longoria told Rosalina Gonzales. “In the old days, maybe we got spanked, but there was a different quarrel. You don’t spank children. You understand?” Gonzales, who also must attend parenting classes in Corpus Christi and pay a $50 fine to a children’s center, responded, “Yes, sir.”

Police arrested her on charges of causing injury to a child in December, after the almost-2-year-old girl’s grandmother notice red marks on her rear and took her to a hospital to be checked out. Prosecutors described it as “pretty simple, straightforward spanking case,” reports WVLT-TV. Gonzales has lost custody of the girl and her two other children, though it’s not clear whether the spanking charges figured into that.

Hawaii:  Court allows ‘parental discipline’ defense

The State Supreme Court ruled 3 to 2 that a man convicted of punching his stepson should have been allowed to raise parental discipline as a defense. The decision allows for Cedric Kikuta to be retried because the trial judge refused to allow jurors to consider the defense that he was disciplining the 14-year-old boy. The trial judge had rejected the defense because the boy’s nose was broken by Mr. Kikuta, who wanted him to clean a carpet stain.       

Round up of family court cases, new policies

(The following articles come from several sources, including the folks behind sites like Parenting News Network, Dastardly Dads, Justice Posterous…)

Does access trump safety?

Boise man, child who died in
murder-suicide Thursday identified

http://www.idahostatesman.com/2011/05/20/1656600/boise-man-child-who-died-in-murder.html

Court records indicate Davis and Natasha’s mother were not
married. There was a legal battle over the girl’s custody which was resolved in
2009, according to Ada County court records.

Initially,
Davis said the girl’s mother refused to let him have access to Natasha
following her birth but a visitation schedule was worked out once lawyers were
hired, the documents say.

Davis sued for joint custody and was granted in April 2009,
according to the records, but a 50/50 split was not to occur until 2013. Until
then, Davis had custody certain days of the week.

Read more: http://www.idahostatesman.com/2011/05/20/1656600/boise-man-child-who-died-in-murder.html#ixzz1N8EqLkd7

Custody battle erupts in gunfire

http://citizensvoice.com/news/custody-battle-erupts-in-gunfire-1.1150096#axzz1N2q4PoFu

In a flurry of gunfire, police said Cooper fatally shot a mother of three and wounded two men before
turning the gun on himself
. His ex-girlfriend and target, Shaundra Langille, 28, survived the shooting rampage by hiding in a closet with the couple’s 9-month-old  daughter and another child, authorities said.

Police  arrived at the chaotic murder-suicide scene around 3:20 p.m. to find Shana Bagley’s body outside the
front door of Apartment 413 in the Hanover Village Apartments, dead on her 25th  birthday.

Read
more: http://citizensvoice.com/news/custody-battle-erupts-in-gunfire-1.1150096#ixzz1N89HDFo4

Family denies custody battle caused deaths

http://news.ninemsn.com.au/national/8251950/grieving-family-denies-custody-dispute

“Both  parents had access to the children and there was no custody battle,” the family said in a statement.

I have an article posted on the  blog that also states access is not a factor when fathers kill (meaning they
don’t kill because they don’t have access, which is what many fathers rights  groups claim) – rather, vengeance often plays a role (and ironically, women are  stereotyped – esp. in family court –as being vengeful).

Records: Barbone admitted to hitting baby; autopsy results in

Neighbors  devastated by murder charge

http://www.localnews8.com/news/27931821/detail.html

The records said that Barbone tried  to quiet his son down when he started crying at 1:30 a.m. Monday. Barbone
changed his diaper and tried to get the baby to fall asleep with him on a  couch. Barbone allegedly admitted to the reporting officer that when the boy would  not quiet down, he struck the baby on  the back of the head with his fist and then elbowed him in the head, according to the records.

When Barbone realized the child was  unresponsive he took him to Portneuf Medical Center from the home he was
staying at on La Montagna Strada, which is less than a mile away from the  hospital. This happened around 7 a.m., according to the records.

Doctors worked to save the infant  for 30 minutes before declaring him dead. They said the infant was most likely
dead before he arrived at the hospital, according to the records.

Barbone had been living with his girlfriend and her two  other children in Sunny Creek Courts on the south part of town, the manager of  the trailer court said. Barbone had moved out after being charged with domestic
battery, but that the family was back together again late last week, and  neighbors saw Barbone and his girlfriend smiling together, the manager said.  Barbone had visitation custody with  the infant, according to court records.

Father charged in slaying of teen

http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/father-charged-in-slaying-of-teen/2011/05/21/AFzRYj8G_story.html?wprss=rss_local

I’ve only read the Washington Post article regarding this case – which has “father” in the headlines, but I’ve  seen other that said “man.”  It also says he killed “teen” not daughter. Lastly, the WaPo quotes  that the father had a “sexual relationship” with the the teen – huh?!  Isn’t this molestation?!

It says the girl lived with Mom but visited Dad.

Valrico father arrested after child’s thigh bone is
fractured

http://www.tampabay.com/news/publicsafety/crime/valrico-father-arrested-after-childs-thigh-bone-is-fractured/1170540

VALRICO — A 24-year-old man was accused of aggravated child abuse Thursday  after deputies say he pulled his 3-year-old boy to the ground and fractured the child’s thigh bone.

This is what the Hillsborough County Sheriff’s Office says happened:

Matthew Clark was changing his 1-year-old’s diaper at his apartment on N Valrico Road when his 3-year-old came up to him, which aggravated Clark. He grabbed the  3-year-old by the shoulder and pulled the child to the ground.

The child hit the ground with his left knee and fell on his side. Clark heard a  pop. The child cried.

But deputies say the father didn’t seek medical treatment or call 911. About  half an hour later, he dropped both
children off with their mother
. She took them to the hospital. Clark, who lists his occupation as a shift leader at Tijuana Flats, was being held in jail without bail.

Tenn.
Custody bill that seeks to maximize parents’ involvement headed to governor

http://www.greenfieldreporter.com/view/story/f2918ebe4e0b4c318432988b26a87bd0/TN-XGR–Child-Custody/

NASHVILLE,  Tenn. — A proposal that would require  judges to consider how to maximize a parent’s involvement in a child’s life  when making custody decisions is headed to the governor for his
consideration.

The measure sponsored by Democratic Sen. Andy Berke of Chattanooga was approved  19-9 by the Senate on Saturday. The House version passed 92-0 last month. Although  not the only factor to be considered, legal experts say the call for “maximum participation possible” could lead some judges to increase visitation time or divide custody 50-50 more often.

Democratic  Sen. Beverly Marrero of Memphis says judges should be given “tools to do what they think is in the best interest of the children of Tennessee.” Gov. Bill Haslam is expected to review the proposal once it reaches his desk.

Australia  is having their problems with Fathers rights, too:

Children, the biggest losers in shared care?

http://www-public.jcu.edu.au/jcnn/makingnews/JCU_079915

“In the Family Court, the Howard Government brought in a law colloquially known as the ‘shared care’ law,”
Overington said. “It essentially requires judges of the Family Court to  consider giving parents a 50-50 or a shared care split of the children after divorce.”

The law represented a radical  change in policy. Judges are now being asked to consider the child’s best interests will be served by an equal relationship with both parents, almost  regardless of the circumstances Overington said.

“They are now legally bound to do  so and, ironically, they are splitting custody between the parents who are least able to share.

“Something like nine in 10 couples reach an agreement themselves before they even reach the Family Court. The cases that do end up in court are the ones where the  couples are essentially at war over even the smallest details of their  children’s lives. Yet they are the ones who are forced to cooperate. That’s why we’ve ended up with the kind of problems we’ve seen.”

Overington outlines an example  where a man and woman have a one-night stand and the woman falls pregnant, reminiscent of a case in New South Wales earlier this year. “The father was not, according to the mother’s testimony, that interested in having a relationship with the child, but very desperately did not want to pay any maintenance,” Overington  said.

“According to the law, the more time you have custody of the child the less you have to pay in maintenance, so the father wanted to have the child 50 per cent of the time.

“So you have a child under the age of one – still on the breast – being shuffled back  and forwards between houses at two-hour intervals so both parents can have  their equal time.

“To my mind, that is not in the best interests of the child. It may be in the best interests of the father, but it’s certainly not in the best interests of the infant.”

New bill on child abuse aims to halt false claims

http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20110519/NEWS/105190332

The bill is designed to discourage adults from using malicious allegations of abuse in bitter divorce or child custody cases, supporters say.

And-

Mish said holding people accountable for false reports is “a good thing.” But the bill could  have the unintended consequence of  keeping children trapped in abusive situations because adults are fearful of making a report that, while true, might not be able to be proven, she said.

If they were familiar with current research, they’d know that the vast majority of abuse claims are made in good faith. This punishment can hurt protective parents and children more than it can help innocent men. (And it disregards
the false accusations of being an unfit or unstable mother).

Stepmother of boy accused of killing his neo-Nazi father charged with child endangerment

http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2011/05/neo-nazi-father-killed.html

Two of Hall’s children were from a previous marriage, including his  10-year-old son. According to court records, the boy had a history of  aggression and violence after his parents went through a bitter divorce, with both Hall and his ex-wife, Leticia Neal of Spokane, Wash., accusing each other of abusing and neglecting the
children.

Hall was granted full custody of the children. Last year, Neal filed for custody of the 10-year-old
boy and his 9-year-old sister, saying she was concerned about the children’s well-being because of the father’s affiliation with the neo-Nazi group. Hall opposed the motion, saying Neal had had no contact with the children for six years.

Disabled mom fights for custody of son

http://www.stltoday.com/lifestyles/relationships-and-special-occasions/parenting/aisha-sultan/article_1873270b-be68-5672-b379-8887a18e02b3.html

And now, with their child in kindergarten, she’s trapped in a yearlong custody battle with her ex-boyfriend, the baby’s father. Currently, the parents share custody, but her ex is seeking full custody. Flynn says her disability is at the heart of the issue.

“Her ability to parent because of her disability will be on trial,” her attorney Jack Cavanagh said. A resulting side effect of the  stroke has been aphasia, a language disorder that makes her struggle to find the words she wants to communicate. Her speech comes in short, halting bursts, and she lost her ability to read.